8 – Team

Introduction

A team can do various things. They can, for example, supply services, coordinate project work, manufacture items, negotiate conversations or transactions, make conjectural offers, or make judgements.

When people work together, organizations are the broad tactics that bring order out of chaos. Organizations provide the framework for creating predictable linkages between people, technology, employment, and resources. When a group of people join forces, organizations must be employed to achieve fruitful results.

7.1 Organizational Context For Teams

1. Classical Concepts in Organizational Design

Teams have emerged as pivotal entities within organizations, demonstrating superior performance compared to individual efforts, particularly in tasks requiring diverse skills, precise judgement, and extensive experience. Many successful organizations strategically structure themselves around teams to optimize employee talents effectively. Teams offer flexibility and responsiveness to changing circumstances, setting them apart from traditional organizational departments.

Classical organization theory involves a systematic approach to distributing work, authority, and responsibilities. This entails dividing the total workload into divisions, departments, and jobs and assigning responsibilities. The hierarchy is visually represented in an organizational chart, reflecting the delegation of duties and the creation of functional units. However, organizations vary in their structures and operations, with managers employing different levels of delegation based on factors such as subordinates’ perceived capability and trustworthiness and workload pressures.

In contrast, work teams generate positive synergy through coordinated efforts. The collective performance of individuals within a team surpasses individual contributions. In its pursuit of enhanced organizational performance, management increasingly harnesses the power of teams. While effective teams share common characteristics, forming a team does not automatically guarantee improved performance.

Several types of teams have been identified in contemporary managerial organizations:

i. Problem-Solving Teams

ii. Self-Managed Teams

iii. Cross-Functional Teams

iv. Virtual Teams

Managers as Linking Pins: The coordination of division of work and delegation results in an intricate web of relationships, known as the linking pin concept. Managers connect their groups with the broader organization, functioning as linking pins. Effective linking pins are crucial for seamless organizational operation, while weaknesses in this chain can compromise organizational effectiveness.

2. Contingency Organizational Design

A shift towards contingency organizational design acknowledges the need for different structures and processes depending on diverse situations. Significant influences on organizational design include strategy, technology, size, and managerial preferences. Environments also play a role, and flexibility in organizational design is crucial to adapting to evolving environmental conditions.

Mechanistic and Organic Forms: Early research by Tom Burns and George Stalker introduced the concepts of mechanical and organic organizations. Mechanistic organizations, characterized by hierarchy, specialization, and rigid roles, excel in stable environments with well-defined tasks. In contrast, organic organizations are flexible, open, and adapt to dynamic environments. Decentralized decision-making and multidirectional communication are prevalent in organic structures.

Contingency Factors: The effectiveness of mechanical or organic forms depends on various contingency factors. Stable tasks, minimal environmental changes, and a preference for routine tasks align with mechanistic forms. Organic forms thrive in dynamic environments, undefined tasks, and a workforce seeking autonomy and adaptability.

In conclusion, a contingency approach to organizing recognizes that organizational structures should be flexible and adaptable, varying based on specific departmental needs within an organization. For instance, research departments may adopt an organic structure, while production departments may lean towards mechanical designs to meet their unique requirements. This adaptive organizational philosophy departs from traditional fixed views on organizational design.

7.2 Employee Involvement and Teamwork in Organizations

Recognizing the pivotal role of employee involvement as a motivator, organizations increasingly turn to teams to enhance operational decision-making. The rationale behind this shift lies in the employees’ nuanced understanding of products, making their participation invaluable. Teams, fostering democratic management and boosting employee motivation, have created compelling and collaborative work environments.

While individual employees execute operational tasks, most operate within regular small groups, where their efforts intricately align, akin to assembling puzzle pieces. In this interdependent work setting, these groups function as task teams, striving to cultivate a cooperative state commonly called teamwork.

A task team is a cooperative small group consistently engaged in coordinated action. Its distinctive features include frequent interaction among team members and its enduring existence, setting it apart from short-term decision-making groups or project teams. When team members are aligned with their objectives, contribute responsibly and enthusiastically to the task, and provide mutual support, they epitomize teamwork. The development of teamwork involves several key ingredients: a supportive environment, skills tailored to role requirements, subordinate goals, and team rewards.

1. Supportive Environment: A conducive atmosphere plays a pivotal role in fostering teamwork. This involves creating a workplace culture that encourages collaboration, open communication, and mutual support among team members. Leadership that values and actively promotes teamwork significantly develops a supportive environment.

2. Skills Matched to Role Requirements: Effective teamwork requires individuals to possess skills aligning with their designated team roles. Ensuring team members have the necessary competencies enhances their ability to contribute meaningfully to the collective goals and tasks.

3. Subordinate Goals: Establishing subordinate goals within the team framework helps align individual efforts with broader team objectives. This ensures that every team member understands their role in achieving common goals, fostering a shared purpose.

4. Team Rewards: Recognition and rewards tied to team achievements reinforce the value of collaboration and encourage sustained efforts. Acknowledging the collective contributions of the team motivates individuals to actively participate in achieving shared objectives.

Developmental Stages of Teams: New teams typically progress through developmental stages, each characterized by specific dynamics and challenges. These stages commonly include forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Navigating these stages requires effective leadership, clear communication, and a commitment to building and sustaining a culture of teamwork.

7.3 Life Cycle Of A Team

When individuals embark on interdependent tasks, the journey towards effective teamwork unfolds through distinct stages, reflecting a dynamic pattern observed across diverse team settings. While not strictly linear, these stages provide a comprehensive framework to anticipate and understand the challenges teams commonly encounter during their collaborative journey. The stages arise from many questions and issues that naturally surface as the team evolves. These stages serve as a guide for team members, offering insights into the team’s developmental trajectory:

i. Forming: In the initial stage, team members share personal information, fostering a foundation for getting to know and accept one another. Attention gradually shifts towards the group’s tasks. Interactions are characterized by courtesy, and a sense of caution often permeates the team dynamics.

ii. Storming: As the team progresses, members engage in a dynamic of competition for status and positions of influence. Consensus on the group’s direction becomes a focal point, and external pressures may introduce tensions among individuals as they assert themselves within the team.

iii. Norming: A cooperative atmosphere emerges as the group navigates towards a tentative balance among competing forces. Group norms surface to guide individual behaviour, and a sense of cooperation becomes increasingly evident among team members.

iv. Performing: Maturation marks this stage as the group learns to handle complex challenges adeptly. Functional roles are executed and flexibly exchanged as needed, leading to the efficient accomplishment of tasks. The team reaches a level of high functionality and collaboration.

v. Adjourning: Even the most successful groups, committees, or project teams eventually disband, a phase known as adjourning. During this stage, intense social relations within the team dissolve, and members transition back to permanent assignments. The rise of flexible organizations has made the adjournment stage more frequent, especially with temporary groups.

Advising teams about these anticipated stages is a valuable tool for team members and leaders. Awareness of the team life cycle enhances understanding of ongoing dynamics and facilitates the resolution of challenges. It’s important to note that every group is unique, and not all teams will uniformly experience each stage. Some groups may temporarily stall in a specific stage, while others might periodically revert to an earlier phase. To expedite their development, team members can benefit from understanding the key elements that contribute to team success.

7.4 Ingredients of Effective Teams: Nurturing the Essence of Teamwork

Creating and sustaining effective teams requires carefully orchestrating various elements that foster collaboration, trust, and a shared sense of purpose. The essential ingredients that contribute to team success are pivotal in shaping a supportive environment where teamwork can flourish.

i. Supportive Environment: Management is crucial in cultivating a supportive teamwork environment. Fundamental steps include encouraging team members to embrace a collective mindset, allocating adequate time for team meetings, and instilling faith in the team’s capabilities. Establishing an organizational culture that values cooperation, trust, and compatibility lays the foundation for effective teamwork.

ii. Skills and Role Clarity: Team members must possess the requisite skills for their roles and a willingness to collaborate. Beyond individual qualifications, a clear delineation of roles within the team is imperative. When members understand each other’s roles, they can seamlessly act as a cohesive unit, responding proactively to situational demands without awaiting explicit instructions. This mutual understanding fosters voluntary cooperation, trust, and swift, coordinated responses.

Example: In a hospital surgical team, members respond to a crisis during an operation based on mutual recognition and understanding of each other’s roles. This level of trust and efficient cooperation is symbolic of a well-functioning team.

iii. Superordinate Goals: Managers steer team members toward a shared overarching task. Occasionally, organizational policies, record-keeping requirements, or reward systems may inadvertently fragment individual efforts, hindering teamwork. Superordinate goals and higher objectives that integrate the efforts of multiple individuals can counteract such fragmentation. Focusing on these collective goals aligns individual efforts, promotes unity, and stimulates cohesive team dynamics.

iv. Team Rewards: The presence of team rewards serves as a potent catalyst for teamwork. These rewards can take the form of financial incentives or recognition. Their effectiveness is maximized when team members value them, perceive them as attainable, and receive them contingent on the group’s task performance. Striking a delicate balance between encouraging individual initiative and fostering contributions to team success is crucial. Innovative non-financial team rewards, such as the authority to select new members, make recommendations about a supervisor, or propose discipline for team members, can further enhance team cohesion.

7.5 Potential Team Problems

The vibrancy and complexity of effective teams in action are truly captivating. It is gratifying to observe team members deeply committed to the success of the organization, sharing a common ethos on product quality, safety, and customer satisfaction, and collectively shouldering the responsibility for timely project completion. However, the intricacies of teamwork are highly sensitive to the organizational environment, making its growth a gradual process and its decline potentially swift.

Challenges in Sustaining Teamwork:

1. Organizational Changes and Personnel Transfers:

Rapid organizational changes and frequent personnel transfers can disrupt group relationships and impede the organic growth of teamwork.

2. Departure from Classical Lines of Authority:

Some employees may struggle to adapt responsibly to a departure from classical lines of authority within a team structure.

3. Time-Consuming Decision-Making:

While a hallmark of effective teamwork, extensive participation in decision-making can consume significant amounts of time, posing a challenge for efficient operations.

4. Potential for Charges of Partiality:

Experimentation with team activities may inadvertently lead to accusations of partiality from employees not directly involved, creating tensions within the organization.

5. Combination of Efforts vs. Overall Performance:

The synergy expected from the combination of individual efforts may not always translate into the anticipated improvement in overall performance.

Example: Social Loafing and Its Causes:

• Social loafing, where employees reduce their output when they believe their contributions are hard to measure, can be detrimental to teams.
• Causes of social loafing include perceptions of unfair labour division, beliefs about co-workers’ laziness, and a sense of anonymity in a group that provides a shield from individual accountability.
• Social loafing may also arise from the fear that others intend to withhold efforts, leading individuals to adopt a similar approach to avoid being perceived as overly committed.

Effective Team Management: A Contingency Approach: Given the potential challenges, effective managers employ a contingency framework to determine the suitability of a team approach. Analyzing the nature of the task, participants’ qualifications and preferences, and time and cost constraints guide the decision-making process. Transitioning from traditional one-on-one supervision to team management presents a new set of challenges, necessitating adaptability and strategic leadership.

7.6 Team Building

In the intricate web of organizational dynamics, the effectiveness of individual teams is as crucial as the collaboration among various teams constituting the entire organization. Higher-level managers play a pivotal role in integrating these diverse groups into a cohesive whole, emphasizing the significance of team building for small and larger organizational units. Team building serves as a catalyst, encouraging team members to assess their collaborative efforts, pinpoint weaknesses, and cultivate more efficient methods of cooperation to enhance team effectiveness.

The Team Building Process:

The team-building process follows a structured pattern:

1. Examination and Reflection:

Team building involves examining how teams operate, identifying weaknesses, and developing more effective collaborative strategies.

2. Goal of Effectiveness:

The overarching goal of team building is to make teams more effective, enabling them to accomplish tasks, problem-solve, and foster satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Unique Team Building Approaches: Wilderness Experiences: A distinctive form of team building involves immersive “wilderness experiences,” where managers embark on week-long adventures such as trekking, rafting, and outdoor obstacle courses. These physical challenges create a substantial survival test, fostering creativity, risk-taking, communication skills, and, most importantly, trust. Such experiences encourage teams to balance strengths and weaknesses, forming strong bonds among members.

Skills Essential for Team Building:

Facilitators responsible for developing effective teams must possess a diverse skill set, including consultation skills (diagnosis, contracting, change design), interpersonal skills (trust-building, coaching, listening), research skills (study planning, execution, and evaluation), and presentation skills (public speaking, report preparation). Two pivotal skills, process consultation and feedback, emerge as critical for team-building success.

Process Consultation: In team building, a unique role comes into play—that of the process consultant. Unlike experts or problem solvers, process consultants focus on helping teams understand their current behavioural dynamics. By acting as mirrors, process consultants aid team members in perceiving, understanding, and responding constructively to ongoing events. They observe, ask probing questions, and resist owning the team’s problems, fostering independence among team members.

Feedback: Feedback is an essential component of team development, offering valuable data for decision-making. Through feedback exercises, team members gain insights into how others perceive them and can take corrective actions. For example, a feedback exercise involving separate groups presenting characteristics and perceptions uncovers significant misunderstandings. The subsequent discussion focuses on understanding the root causes of misunderstandings and devising corrective actions.

7.7 Types of Teams

Various types of teams emerge to address specific challenges and tasks in the extent of organisational structures. Each team type operates under unique characteristics, contributing to the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the organization.

1. Problem Solving Teams:

• Composition: Typically comprising 6-10 employees selected from the department experiencing the problem.
• Function: Meets regularly to brainstorm and devise strategies for enhancing quality, efficiency, and work environment.
• Authority: Lacks implementation authority, serving in an advisory capacity.

2. Self-Managed Teams:

• Composition: Consists of around a dozen employees who assume responsibilities from their former supervisor.
• Function: Takes charge of planning, scheduling, task assignments, operational decisions, and problem resolution.
• Authority: Empowered to implement decisions; members can choose their colleagues.

3. Cross-Functional Teams:

• Composition: Comprises members from similar hierarchical levels but different work areas.
• Function: Collaborates to accomplish specific tasks, leveraging diverse perspectives for problem-solving and managing complex projects.
• Challenges: Building trust takes time due to the heterogeneity of team members in terms of experience, background, and knowledge.

4. Virtual Teams:

• Technology Integration: Utilizes computer technology to connect geographically dispersed members.
• Capabilities: Versatile, capable of handling various tasks other team types perform.
• Differentiators:
  • Communication Challenges: Lack of verbal or non-verbal cues.
  • Limited Social Context: Reduced understanding of the social dynamics.
  • Temporal and Spatial Flexibility: Overcomes constraints of time and space.

While the first two team types often adopt an informal nature, the latter two are more formal in structure.

Building Effective Teams: Creating and sustaining effective teams requires concerted efforts focused on key components:

• Work Design: Aligning tasks and responsibilities to optimize team performance.
• Team Composition: Balancing skills, experience, and perspectives within the team.
• Resource Allocation: Providing the necessary resources to support team objectives.
• Intellectual Influences: Leveraging the collective knowledge and expertise of team members.
• Process Variables: Implementing and refining team processes to enhance efficiency and collaboration.

In essence, the effectiveness of these specialized work teams is rooted in thoughtful design, diverse composition, adequate resourcing, intellectual synergy, and a streamlined process. The harmonious integration of these elements propels teams towards achieving organizational goals and fostering a culture of continuous improvement.

7.8 Self-Managing Teams

In the realm of empowerment tools, self-managing teams, also known as self-reliant or self-directed teams, have emerged as a potent force in reshaping organizational structures. These teams, resembling natural work groups, are entrusted with substantial autonomy and, in turn, are tasked with governing their conduct to yield significant results. What sets them apart is the harmonious integration of empowerment and training, empowering them to plan, direct, monitor, and control their activities, essentially allowing them to function as managers.

Distinct Characteristics of Self-Managing Teams:

• Autonomy and Freedom: These teams enjoy wide-ranging independence and freedom, enabling them to act with managerial authority.
• Multi-Skilling: Team members undergo a practice known as multi-skilling, acquiring diverse skills that allow them to seamlessly transition across different areas and tasks based on organizational needs.
• Collective Decision-Making: Joint decision-making is a hallmark, involving discussions on work schedules, resource needs, and task assignments during team meetings.
• Gradual Assumption of Responsibilities: Over time, these teams gradually assume managerial responsibilities, starting from basic tasks like housekeeping and safety training to eventually managing absenteeism, setting schedules, selecting and appraising team members, training colleagues, and even influencing strategic decisions like redefining the organization’s mission or contributing to expansion plans.

Advantages of Self-Managing Teams:

1. Enhanced Flexibility: Improved adaptability and flexibility of staff.

2. Operational Efficiency: Streamlined operations through fewer job classifications.

3. Reduced Absenteeism and Turnover: Lower rates of absenteeism and labour turnover.

4. Increased Commitment: Higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction among team members.

Challenges and Disadvantages:

1. Implementation Time: Requires an extended period, often taking several years to implement fully.

2. High Training Investment: Demands a significant investment in training initiatives.

3. Early Inefficiencies: Initial inefficiencies may arise due to job rotation and transitioning.

4. Resistance and Adaptation: Some employees may struggle to adapt to a team structure, and cultural values emphasizing individualism can pose challenges.

Future Outlook and Organizational Impact: Self-managing teams represent a powerful manifestation of organizational behaviour (OB) knowledge applied to teamwork and participative methodologies. Their prevalence is likely to increase due to continuous organizational support, direct involvement of the entire workforce, substantial authority, and their status as ongoing structures rather than short-term initiatives.

However, challenges may persist, including the influence of cultural values, resistance from rigid job classifications, and managerial apprehension regarding the loss of control and job security. Despite these challenges, the transformative potential of self-managing teams positions them as a pivotal force in the evolving landscape of organizational dynamics.