10 – Leadership

Introduction

Leadership is essential for family, group, society, business, government, and other organisations. Every organisation needs a leader to create, execute, coordinate, and govern its planning, implementing, reviewing, and controlling operations to achieve its goals efficiently. The 1940s and 1950s human relations movement supported the concept of leadership’s importance to business and government. Since then, a lot of research has been done in the field of leadership, but it is still considered incomplete because each empirical study reveals new characteristics of leadership that were previously unknown.

Leadership is an essential management component and vital to managerial operations. It gives employees direction, guidance, and confidence, making attaining goals more straightforward. Managers assume the role of leader in business and industrial organisations, assuming the leadership of subordinates, directing their efforts towards achieving organisational goals, and activating individuals within an organisation to make them work. The behaviour of individuals is influenced by leadership. It can attract others as well as have the capability to make them follow directions. Through sound leadership, individuals can be persuaded to contribute to attaining organisational goals. Leadership gains supremacy, and followers accept a leader’s commands and control. Leadership gives an organisation direction and a vision for the future.

The concept of leadership has evolved. Up to 1930, leadership was considered a personal trait of the people, a monopoly of a few. The proponents of this theory held the view that their traits are inherited. Consequently, the concept of “born leadership” or “leaders are born not made” gained popularity. Other people later held the view that certain traits might be learned.

Terry states, “Leadership is the ability of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives.”

According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the process of encouraging and helping others to work enthusiastically towards objectives”.

10.1 Features of Leadership

The following are the characteristics of leadership:

1. Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of individuals in an organisation.
2. Leadership uses non-coercive tactics to lead and organise the work of an organization’s individuals.
3. Leadership directs individuals to complete the tasks entrusted to them by following the instructions of their leaders.
4. A leader possesses qualities that allow him or her to influence others.
5. Leadership provides individuals with a vision for the future.
6. Leadership is a group endeavour. Leaders influence their followers, and followers influence their leaders.

10.2 Importance of Leadership

The following points can help analyse the need for and significance of leadership:
• A leader should act as a friend to the people he leads.
• A leader must be able to recognise and develop individuals’ potentials into realities.
• A leader should have the trust of the individuals in the organisation.
• A leader must be able to bring people together and build team spirit.
• A leader must be able to maintain group discipline and instill a sense of responsibility in his followers.
• A leader must be able to build morale among the individuals in the organisation.
• A leader should inspire his followers to achieve their goals.
• A leader should work to boost morale among individuals and maintain ethical standards among them.
• A leader should act as a liaison between the work groups and the forces outside the organisation.

10.3 Leadership: A Conceptual Analysis

The term “leader” is derived from the verb “to lead,” encompassing concepts such as advancement, excellence, standard-setting, guidance, and governance of others’ actions. A leader is an individual who guides a group of followers, earning acceptance through the competence to govern and direct their actions. Leadership effectiveness hinges on the leader’s ability to be ahead of followers, commanding respect and obedience. A leader should excel in professional, technical, managerial, or other skills, maintaining composure in adversity and remaining grounded in success.

Leadership requires the capacity to guide subordinates, maintain discipline, and enforce unity for common goals. Various authorities on management, such as Barnard, define leadership as the quality of behaviour guiding organized efforts, including property or plant management in systems of cooperation. Leadership depends on individuals (leaders and followers) and prevailing conditions.

Barnard distinguishes between stable and unstable conditions, impacting leadership behaviour. Stable conditions demand calm, deliberate, and reflective behaviour, while unstable conditions require courage, decisiveness, and initiative. Leadership encompasses determining objectives, manipulating means, controlling instrumental action, and stimulating coordinated action.

The trait theory is deemed irrelevant in modern times, with situational theory gaining prominence. McGregor’s leadership relations theory emphasizes leader characteristics, follower attitudes, organizational traits, and social and political influences. Livingston echoes the relationship concept, defining leadership as the ability to awaken the desire for a common objective in others.

Tanenbaum, E. Katz, William Foote Whyte, and others support the relationship theory. In summary, leadership is the ability to elicit desirable voluntary action from followers without coercion.

10.4 Difference between Leadership and Management

Aspect	Leadership	Management
Focus	People-oriented, focusing on inspiring and	Task-oriented, emphasizing planning, organizing,
	influencing individuals to achieve a common goal	coordinating and controlling tasks and processes
Vision	Sets a vision and inspires followers towards it	Implements and executes the vision set by leaders
Role	Takes a strategic and visionary role	Plays an operational and administrative role
Innovation	Encourages innovation and change	Implements established processes and procedures
Risk-Taking	Willing to take calculated risks	Prefers risk mitigation and stability
Communication	Communicates with inspiration and motivation	Communicates with clarity and efficiency
Decision-Making	Focuses on quick decision-making to adapt to	Emphasizes careful decision-making based on
	dynamic situations	analysis and planning
People Development	Develops and mentors individuals for long-term	Focuses on training and development for current
	growth and potential	job requirements
Flexibility	Adaptable to change and uncertainty	Prefers stability and order
Interpersonal Relations	Builds strong interpersonal relationships	Maintains formal relationships within the team
Time Horizon	Concerned with the long-term impact and legacy	Concerned with short to medium-term efficiency

10.5 Types of Leaders

i. Cerebral Leaders Known for their intellectual prowess, cerebral leaders gain recognition by making significant contributions to knowledge that significantly benefit humanity. Noteworthy achievements by Nobel laureates across various fields have played a pivotal role in alleviating human suffering and enhancing overall well-being. This intellectual leadership extends beyond laureates, encompassing figures like Ruskin, Carlyle, Keats, and Duiker.

ii. Institutional Leaders Occupying leadership positions within specific institutions, institutional leaders derive authority from their roles. Examples include the Imam of Jama Masjid or the Head of Bohra communities, both emblematic of institutional leadership.

iii. Democratic Leaders Emerging through majority support, democratic leaders gain prominence due to popular mandates. Even opposing voices frequently come together behind the chosen leader once the majority has endorsed him or her, emphasizing a shared commitment to the cause. Operating with a focus on persuasion rather than coercion, democratic leaders navigate challenges by valuing the sentiments of their followers and involving them in decision-making processes.

Participation not only fortifies the leader’s ability to implement decisions successfully but also offers additional benefits. Open dialogue ensures subordinates remain loyal, minimizing the risk of last-minute betrayals. Furthermore, engaging in collaborative decision-making helps democratic leaders refine their perspectives and avoid potential pitfalls.

iv. Autocratic Leaders Positioned as authoritarian figures, autocratic leaders wield authority to direct subordinates unequivocally. Employing means such as force, coercion, and intimidation, these leaders demand strict adherence to their directives. However, this authoritative approach fosters an atmosphere of distrust, disharmony, and suspicion between superiors and subordinates, hindering overall group efficiency.

v. Persuasive Leaders Persuasive leaders fall under the category of charismatic leadership because of their magnetic personalities. Attracting followers through a combination of devotion, sanctity, heroism, and exemplary character, these leaders possess an innate ability to persuade. While charisma plays a role, true leadership extends beyond mere charisma, as exemplified by business magnates like Henry Ford, John D. Rockfall, and Chryslor, who commanded allegiance due to their business prowess.

vi. Creative or Innovative Leaders Acknowledged for groundbreaking contributions within their domains, creative or innovative leaders play a pivotal role in human advancement. Whether scientists, engineers, architects, or business experts, their impact often garners official recognition through prestigious awards like the Nobel Prize, bestowed by internationally or nationally recognized institutes.

10.6 Leadership Styles

The approach to leadership is distinct from the inherent personality traits of the leader. While leadership behaviour may be influenced by the leader’s personality, it is profoundly shaped by the surrounding circumstances, often referred to as the external organizational environment. This environment comprises crucial components such as the organization itself, superiors, job demands, other unclassified situational variables, followers or subordinates, and associates. The interplay between these situational factors and the leader’s personality forms the crux of what is commonly known as leadership style.

Leadership styles can be delineated into three primary categories:

i. Leader-Centered or Autocratic: The autocratic style signifies the centralization of decision-making authority in the leader. The team leader is primarily responsible for making decisions and communicating them to the group. Sometimes, tentative choices may be presented, and explanations may or may not accompany them. The autocratic style is sometimes characterized as benevolent and authoritative, considering the limitations of individuals and work situations. Some leaders adopt a consultative approach, seeking input from subordinates before finalizing decisions. However, the hallmark of the autocratic style is minimal or no participation of subordinates in decision-making. The leader may resort to forcing or suppressing the expression of subordinates, prioritizing obedience over individual or group harmony.

Despite its potential drawbacks, the autocratic style is justified on the grounds of time constraints, confidentiality concerns, and the psychological need for subordinates to feel involved, even if their ability to contribute is limited.

ii. Group-Centered or Democratic The democratic style hinges on the fundamental principle of involving subordinates in the decision-making process. While not every subordinate may partake in every decision, a process is established to satisfy the decision-making instincts of the team. Communication flows freely between the leader and subordinates before arriving at final decisions. Various methods of participation may be employed, ranging from open group discussions to defining limits within which the group can make decisions.

The democratic style maintains a balance between leadership direction and democratic principles, avoiding complete anarchy or the absence of the rule of law. The leader persuades and convinces subordinates based on ability, competence, and leadership qualities rather than relying on force or status. This style fosters cooperation, encourages subordinate development, and proves motivational by fulfilling the basic urge for participation.

In line with McGregor’s Theory “Y,” the democratic style acknowledges that authority comes from both the leader’s position and, more importantly, the power given by the group. It acknowledges people’s inherent self-direction and creativity when properly motivated.

iii. Individual-Centered or Free Rein (Laissez-Faire) The laissez-faire style represents minimal interference by the leader, relying extensively on the group to set goals and make decisions. This implies an absence of formal leadership, with the leader assuming a passive role. However, this style is often impractical unless implemented with a small group of intelligent and experienced individuals.

The choice of leadership style, be it autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire, is contingent upon the organizational setting, the expectations of leaders, followers, and supervisors, and the specific circumstances. Both the leader’s and the followers’ abilities, personalities, and value systems have an impact on it.

In contemporary organisations’ dynamic and unpredictable landscape, effective managers must cultivate trusting relationships with their followers. As organizations seek transformational leaders with a clear vision and charisma, managers need to consider the attributes that followers value, such as smartness, a personal touch, and verbal adeptness. Additionally, leaders should recognize the importance of investing in leadership training and selection to navigate the evolving challenges of today’s professional landscape.

10.7 Relevant Conditions For Leadership Styles

Several factors come into play when determining the most appropriate leadership style:

i. Personality The primary goal of a leadership style is to elicit responses from followers, and its adaptability to followers’ personality traits is crucial in a study by N.Z. Medulla, within a military group, it was observed that individuals with authoritarian tendencies tended to favour formal military leadership qualities in an officer. This suggests a preference for an autocratic leadership style among subordinates with dictatorial tendencies. Similarly, leaders possessing certain personality traits may find themselves unsuitable for specific leadership styles. For instance, someone with a reserved personality may not align well with an authoritative leadership style, and vice versa.

ii. Task Characteristics The nature of the task being accomplished also plays a role in determining the most suitable leadership style. Tasks can be broadly classified into those with apparent solutions and those of a more complex nature requiring interpersonal cooperation among group members. Functions with multiple solutions and a need for greater interpersonal cooperation may align well with a democratic leadership style. On the other hand, tasks with clear solutions might be best tackled through a “group-centered” rather than a “leader-centered” style. Intelligence levels are also intertwined with leadership style preferences; intelligent individuals often gravitate towards a democratic style, while those with lower intelligence may find satisfaction in an autocratic style.

iii. Task Roles The roles assigned to superiors and subordinates impact leadership style. Roles specific to superiors involve activities beyond the comprehension and scope of subordinates, such as setting general goals. Roles specific to subordinates, on the other hand, are generally not interfered with by leaders and may include decisions on how to use tools. The reallocation of machines that people have previously used for a long time is an example of a mixed-role activity.

iv. Group Characteristics Group norms and goals impact leadership style, whether imposed on members or projected to the outside world. Formal acceptance of leadership may be irrelevant to achieving the group’s objectives, but informal acceptance is vital. Informal alignment of the leader with the group’s goals is crucial for informal recognition of formal leadership. Different leadership styles may be more suited to each group’s unique characteristics and goals.

In essence, the intricacies of personality, task characteristics, task roles, and group dynamics contribute significantly to determining the most effective leadership style in any given situation.

10.8 Leadership Theories

Leadership is the process of influencing people to help them achieve their goals. Recent efforts by behaviourists have revealed a trend towards merging the many leadership theories. Numerous theories and methodologies have been established to analyse leadership.
There are three broad leadership theories.
-Trait Theory,
– Behaviour Theory, and
– Contingency Theory

(a)Trait Theory

This leadership study theory examines the personal, psychological, and physical traits of strong leaders. It assumes that some underlying trait or group of traits distinguishes leaders from non-leaders. Leadership traits include intelligence, assertiveness, above-average height, self-confidence, initiative, and awareness of interpersonal human connections. The presence of these traits affects the significance of leadership. Possession of these traits aids individuals in acquiring leadership traits. Only those who possess these qualities would be considered prospective leaders, as not all individuals do.
Some of this theory’s flaws include:

• Not all of the traits are identical in terms of essential leadership characteristics.
• Some traits can only be learned through training and may not be inherited.
• It does not distinguish between a good leader’s most and least essential traits.
• Despite the required traits, it does not explain leadership failures.
• It has been discovered that many traits leaders share may also be found in followers without explaining why followers cannot become leaders.
• In absolute terms, traits are complex to describe.
• As a result, the trait theory has been chastised for its lack of conclusiveness and predictability.

(b) Behaviour Theory

According to behavioural theory, influential leaders behave differently than ineffective leaders. It also identified the importance of strong leaders’ consistent behaviour. The following case studies can help you better understand this notion.

• The Michigan Studies: Rensis Likert and colleagues at the University of Michigan began researching leadership in the late 1940s. The Michigan studies identified two forms of leadership behaviour based on broad discussions with managers and subordinates. They are as follows:

Job-centered leadership behaviour: The first is job-centered leadership behaviour, which focuses on performance and efficiently fulfilling specified duties. A job-centered leader communicates with group members to explain task procedures and supervise their work.

– Employee-centered leadership behaviour: The second identified behaviour is employee-centred leadership behaviour, which focuses on meeting high-performance requirements. This can be accomplished by forming a cohesive work group and ensuring people are happy with their tasks. As a result, the leader’s primary interest is the well-being of his or her subordinates. The Michigan researchers believed a leader may exhibit one type of behaviour but not both.

• The Ohio State Studies: Around the same time, a group of Ohio State researchers began researching leadership. The leadership studies at Ohio State also identified two broad types of leadership behaviours or styles, which are as follows:

– Initiating-structure behaviour: In initiating-structure behaviour, the leader clearly outlines the leader-subordinate roles so everyone is on the same page. The leader also sets official communication channels and decides how to complete tasks.

– Consideration behaviour: In consideration behaviour, the leader expresses regard for the feelings and opinions of subordinates. He makes an effort to create a welcoming, friendly, and encouraging environment.

The Ohio State researchers did not place their two forms of leader behaviour at opposite ends of a single continuum, which is the most glaring distinction between the Michigan and Ohio State studies. Instead, they assumed that the behaviours were independent variables, which means that a leader could exhibit varying degrees of initiating structure and consideration at the same time, i.e., a specific leader could have higher ratings on both measures, lower ratings on both, or high ratings on one and low ratings on the other.

The Ohio State researchers discovered that a leader’s behaviour remains consistent if the situation remains constant. However, the researchers could not identify a single ideal mix of behaviour that would work in all cases. The researchers used to believe that the most influential leaders exhibited both forms of behaviour. On the other hand, their studies at International Harvester discovered that leaders who rate highly on initiating structure behaviour have higher-performing but dissatisfied subordinates. In contrast, leaders who rate highly on consideration structure have lower-performing but higher-satisfied subordinates.

Most experts agree that there appears to be no unique set of traits or behaviours that all excellent leaders share. Universal approaches to leadership can assist managers in examining their leadership characteristics and comparing them to the traits most widely identified with good leaders. Contingency theory must be understood to comprehend the complexities of leadership fully.

(c) Contingency Theory

The essential assumption of contingency theory is that the behaviour of an appropriate leader varies depending on the situation. A contingency theory’s goal is to identify essential situational circumstances and define how they combine to determine proper leadership behaviour.

The three most important and widely recognised leadership contingency theories are as follows:

• The LPC theory:

Fred Fielder’s Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Model is the first contingency theory of leadership. Fielder identified two forms of leadership: task-oriented leadership and relationship-oriented leadership. Fielder believes a leader’s propensity to be task- or relationship-oriented is consistent. In other words, when guiding his group members, a leader is either task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Fielder assessed the type of leadership using the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale. A leader is asked to explain the characteristics of the individual with whom he or she feels the least at ease while at work. They can accomplish this by marking each end of the sixteen scales with a positive or negative term. Fielder, for example, employs three scales in the LPC:

Helpful——————– Frustrating 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Tense ——————-Relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Boring——————- Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The leader’s LPC score is then computed by adding the values below the line ticked on each scale. A high overall score indicates a relational orientation, whereas a low score indicates a task orientation by the leader. The LPC scale is contentious because researchers dispute its validity. Some LPC measures indicate whether the score is an index of behaviour, personality, or some other unknown aspect.

According to Fielder, the contingency element benefits the situation from the leader’s standpoint. As stated below, position power, task structure, and leader-member relationships all have an impact on this element:

• Leader-member relations:

A leader-member relation is the nature of the leader’s relationship with his work group. If the leader and the group have mutual respect, trust, and confidence in one another, their relations will remain positive. Relations will stay strained if there is little trust, respect, or confidence between them or if they do not like one another. Good relations are considered favourable, while unfavourable ties are assumed to be unfavourable.

• Task-structure:

The degree to which the group’s task is specified. The structure is assumed to be high when the task is routine, easily understood, unambiguous and when the group follows conventional processes. Structure is considered low when the task is non-routine, confusing, or complex, and there are no traditional methods or precedents. For the leader, a high structure is more favourable than a low structure, which is unfavourable. If the task structure is low, the task leader must significantly guide and direct the group’s activity. The leader will not have to pay much attention if the task structure is high.

• Position-power:

Position power is the power held by a leader in an organisation. It is assumed to be strong if the leader has the authority to allocate work, give rewards and punishment, and propose personnel for advancement or demotion. If the leader lacks the necessary powers, the position of power is weak. Strong position power is advantageous to a leader, whereas weak power is detrimental.

Fielder and his colleagues conducted numerous studies to determine whether a situation favours leaders and group effectiveness.

A risk-oriented leader will be most effective when the situation incorporates good relations, high structure, and muscular power. When relations are good, but task structure is low, and position power is weak, a LI relationship-oriented leader is thought to be the most effective.

Last but not least, Fielder argues that any particular type of leadership that the LPC measures is rigid and unchangeable. In other words, a leader cannot adapt his behaviour to a certain situation. Fielder’s contingency theory has been criticised since the LPC measure is invalid, and the assumption about the inflexibility of the leader’s behaviour is unrealistic.

Other than the three major leadership theories discussed earlier, several additional contingency models and theories have been developed recently. These include:

(d) The Path-Goal theory

Martin Evans and Robert House pioneered the path-goal leadership model. According to the path-goal theory, a leader can encourage subordinates by influencing their expectations. Leaders can motivate subordinates by clarifying what they need to accomplish to receive the desired reward. The path-goal model assumes that leaders can alter their style or behaviour to match the needs of a specific situation. This model distinguishes between four kinds of leader behaviour: directive, supportive, participative, and goal-oriented. According to this model, any of the four types of leadership behaviour stated above can be included in managers’ behaviour. For example, when managing a new group of subordinates, the leader may give them direction and orders. He may also develop a helpful attitude.

Behaviour to encourage group cohesiveness, to look after their needs, and to ensure that they obtain the rewards and benefits. As the group becomes more experienced with the task and new challenges arise, the leader may adopt participatory behaviour to collaborate with employees in making decisions and accepting their suggestions. Finally, the leader may employ achievement-oriented behaviour to motivate subordinates to maintain high performance.

Environmental factors are factors over which subordinates have no influence. It comprises a task structure, a principal work group, and a formal authority system. When the structure is high, for example, directive leadership is less successful than when the structure is minimal. Subordinates rarely require their superior to explain how to complete a routine task. These environmental elements, according to the path-goal theory, might cause ambiguity for employees. A leader who assists employees in reducing such uncertainty can motivate them. The graphic below depicts the leadership path-goal model.

(e) The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Theory (VYJ)

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Theory (VYJ), initially introduced by Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton in 1973 and later revised by Vroom and Arthur Jago in 1988, is a contingency model that guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision-making processes. This model recognizes the significance of decision effectiveness, emphasizing the quality of the decision and employees’ acceptance of that decision as key metrics.

The VYJ model suggests that decision effectiveness is best evaluated by the quality of the decision and the degree of employee acceptance. Decision acceptance refers to how employees embrace and show loyalty to the decisions made. The theory posits that leaders can choose from five decision-making styles based on the situation, and the appropriateness of each style depends on the nature of the decision and the organizational context.

The five decision-making styles in the VYJ model are:

1. AI (Autocratic I): In this style, the manager makes the decision alone without seeking input from subordinates. The decision is entirely the manager’s responsibility.

2. AII (Autocratic II): The manager seeks information from subordinates but decides alone. Subordinates may or may not be informed about the situation.

3. CI (Consultative I): The manager shares the situation with individual subordinates, seeking their information and evaluation. However, subordinates do not meet as a group, and the manager makes the final decision alone.

4. CII (Consultative II): The manager and subordinates meet to discuss the situation, but ultimately, the manager makes the decision based on the collective input.

5. GII (Group II): The manager and subordinates meet to discuss the situation, and the group decides collectively.

The characteristics of the problem or decision at hand determine the choice of decision-making style. The VYJ model incorporates a set of questions about the attributes of the problem, guiding leaders to select the most appropriate style based on the situation’s urgency and the need for employee involvement.

Additionally, the VYJ model takes into account the influence of contextual factors, such as the impact of the decision on the entire group or an individual, the time constraints for decision-making, and the desire to develop subordinates’ decision-making abilities. The situational characteristics help leaders navigate the complex landscape of decision-making styles, ensuring a tailored approach for each unique circumstance.

Despite some criticism for its complexity, the VYJ model remains a valuable tool for leaders seeking to enhance decision effectiveness by aligning their leadership style with the specific demands of the situation and the organization. The flexibility of the model allows leaders to adapt and choose the most effective decision-making approach based on the dynamic nature of organizational challenges.

f) Vertical Dyad Linkage Model: The Vertical Dyad Linkage Model emphasises that leaders establish distinct working relationships with different subordinates. Each manager-subordinate relationship is viewed as a vertical dyad. This model suggests that leaders form unique working relationships with sure subordinates based on respect, trust, and liking, categorizing them as the ‘in-group.’ On the other hand, remaining subordinates constitute the ‘out-group,’ receiving comparatively less time and attention from the leader. Research indicates that individuals in the ‘in-group’ tend to be more productive and satisfied with their work than those in the ‘out-group.’

g) Life Cycle Model: The Life Cycle Model proposes that appropriate leader behaviour is contingent on the maturity level of followers. Maturity, in this context, encompasses motivation, competence, and experience. The model suggests that leaders should gradually transition from high to low task orientation as followers mature. Simultaneously, the leader’s employee-oriented behaviour should start at a low level, increase moderately, and then decline. Although the Life Cycle Model is considered simple and logical, it has received limited scientific support from researchers.

h) The Managerial Grid

Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton created the Managerial Grid. This leadership model demonstrates the connection between a leader’s concern for output (task-oriented behaviour) and concern for people (relationship-oriented behaviour). The grid is a two-dimensional matrix, with the vertical axis representing concern for people and the horizontal axis representing concern for production. The Managerial Grid identifies various leadership styles based on the combination of these two concerns.

Here is a detailed explanation of the Managerial Grid:

The vertical axis, representing concern for people, ranges from a low score of 1 (minimum concern) to a high score of 9 (maximum concern). Leaders with high regard for people emphasize building positive relationships, fostering teamwork, and addressing their team members’ personal needs and development. On the other hand, leaders with low concern for people may prioritize task accomplishment over the well-being of their team.

The horizontal axis, representing concern for production, ranges from 1 to 9—leaders with a deep concern for production focus on achieving goals, meeting deadlines, and ensuring task efficiency. Conversely, leaders with low regard for production may prioritize maintaining a positive work environment and employee satisfaction over achieving specific outcomes.

The Managerial Grid identifies five leadership styles based on different combinations of concern for people and concern for production:

1. Country Club Management (1,9):

High concern for people, low concern for production.

Emphasis on creating a friendly and comfortable work environment, but productivity may suffer.

2. Team Management (9, 9):

High concern for both people and production.

Encourages teamwork, collaboration, and high productivity through positive relationships.

3. Impoverished Management (1, 1):

Low concern for both people and production.

Minimal effort in both task accomplishment and building relationships.

4. Authority-Compliance Management (9, 1):

High concern for production, low concern for people.

Emphasis on achieving results, but with less attention to the well-being of team members.

5. Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5):

Moderate concern for both people and production.

Balances task accomplishment and relationship-building to a moderate extent.

The Managerial Grid is a tool for leaders to self-assess their predominant leadership style and understand how it may impact their team’s dynamics and organizational outcomes. It emphasizes the importance of achieving a balance between task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviours for effective leadership.

Emerging Perspectives on Leadership in Organizations: New perspectives in leadership have garnered attention, focusing on the concepts of substitutes for leadership and transformational leadership.

1. Substitutes for Leadership: Existing leadership theories and models aim to specify appropriate leader behaviours for different situations but often overlook scenarios where leadership may not be necessary. The substitute concept identifies situations where the characteristics of subordinates, tasks, and organizations replace the need for specific leader behaviours. For instance, when a patient is admitted in an emergency room, nurses, doctors, and attendants act promptly without waiting for directives or supportive behaviours from leaders. Characteristics of subordinates, such as ability and experience, or task features, such as feedback and intrinsic satisfaction, may substitute or modify leader behaviours. Similarly, organizational characteristics like formalization, group cohesion, inflexibility, and a rigid reward structure may substitute for leadership.

2. Transformational Leadership: Transformational leadership encompasses various labels, including charismatic leadership, inspirational leadership, and symbolic leadership. This leadership style conveys a sense of mission, enhances team experiences, and inspires innovative thinking. Charismatic leaders, in particular, attract followers through interpersonal attraction, exhibiting self-confidence and the ability to influence others. Followers of charismatic leaders identify with their beliefs, accept, trust, and obediently contribute to the success of organizational goals. Transformational leadership focuses on motivating and influencing followers beyond routine expectations, fostering a shared vision and commitment to organizational objectives.

Curriculum

Organizational Behaviour