6 – Group

Introduction

A group within an organizational setting is characterized by the interaction and interdependence of two or more individuals working together to achieve specific objectives. These objectives often align with the broader goals of the organization. While there are different types of groups, a workgroup primarily shares information and makes decisions within the scope of individual responsibilities. The group’s performance is essentially the aggregate of contributions from its members.

A “group” is defined as two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent and come together to achieve particular objectives.

According to Marvin Shaw, “a group comprises two or more persons who interact with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person.”

6.1 Need and Importance for a Group

The following are the reasons behind the need for groups:

1. Modern organisations’ management collaborates to bring industrial democracy to the workplace. They use project teams and work committees to ensure workers receive proper recognition. They are eager to participate in decision-making.

2. Tasks in modern industry are becoming more complex, tedious, and repetitive. Work committees, work groups, and teams are formed to monitor the work. They also liven up the workplace environment.
Groups aid in making participative management more successful.

3. To work efficiently in the organisation, groups of different sizes and shapes collaborate in all aspects of production and human connections.

4. An individual cannot do every task. It will take collaborative efforts to complete it. For example, building a ship, making a movie, constructing a flypast, and so on necessitates the coordinated and cohesive efforts of several individuals operating as a group.

5. A group can make better decisions than an individual.

6.2 Types of Groups

1. Formal Groups:

Formal groups are structured by the organization’s design, with designated work assignments and specified tasks. For example, a project team is assigned to develop a new software application, with each member having a defined role and responsibilities according to the project plan.

2. Informal Groups:

Informal groups are spontaneous alliances that are not organizationally determined; they emerge naturally in response to social needs. For example, employees gather during breaks for casual conversations and social interaction, forming bonds based on shared interests.

Sub-Classification of Groups:

1. Command Groups:

The organizational chart establishes command groups, which consist of subordinates who answer directly to a particular manager. Example: The director of postal audits and the inspectors directly reporting to them form a command group.

2. Task Groups:

Task groups are organizationally determined groups that work together to accomplish a specific job task, and their boundaries can extend beyond immediate hierarchical relationships. For example, a cross-functional team was formed to address a specific project involving members from different departments.

3. Interest Groups:

Interest groups are formed when individuals affiliate to achieve a shared objective regardless of their formal organizational alignment. Example: Employees from various departments collaborate to advocate for sustainable practices within the organization.

4. Friendship Groups:

Friendship groups emerge based on common characteristics or shared personal interests among members. Example: colleagues who develop close relationships due to common hobbies or activities outside of work.

5. Reference Groups:

Reference groups play a pivotal role in influencing individuals’ beliefs and behaviours. These groups serve as benchmarks for comparison, shaping identity, norms, and aspirations. Example: Brands, social media influencers, and communities often function as reference groups, significantly influencing individuals’ choices and preferences.

6.3 Why do people join groups?

People belong to various groups, each serving unique purposes and fulfilling distinct needs such as security, identity, affiliation, power, and joint task engagement.

1. Security:

New employees often experience a sense of vulnerability. Joining a group provides reassurance and support. Unions, formed in response to employees’ insecurity, aim to reduce feelings of isolation and enhance collective strength against potential threats.

2. Identity, Self-Esteem, and Status:

Group membership contributes to individuals’ sense of importance and self-worth. Employees seek esteem satisfaction in organisational settings through formal and informal group affiliations. Participation in significant tasks, like a corporate headquarters review task force, fulfils intrinsic needs for competence and growth and irrelevant needs for status and influence.

3. Affiliation:

Regular interactions within a group fulfil individuals’ need for affiliation. Workgroups, in particular, play a crucial role in fostering friendships and social relations. For many, these on-the-job interactions constitute a primary source of social connection.

4. Power:

Groups represent collective power, enabling achievements that may be unattainable individually. Informal groups offer individuals opportunities to influence others, even without a formal position of authority. Group dynamics empower individuals who seek to shape or impact others’ perspectives.

5. Group Goals:

Specific tasks demand collaboration, pooling talents, knowledge, and power. In such cases, formal groups structured by management become instrumental in achieving specific objectives that necessitate the collective contribution of multiple individuals.

6.4 Key Group Concepts

Understanding and predicting group behaviour hinges on three fundamental concepts: roles, norms, and status.

i. Roles:

a. Role Identity: In the social context, individuals play diverse roles within and outside their professional lives. Role identity emerges from attitudes and behaviours consistent with a specific role, allowing individuals to shift roles based on situational demands.

b. Role Perception: Individuals acquire role perceptions from various media and societal influences. Apprenticeship programs enable learning by observing experts, ensuring individuals act according to expected roles.

c. Role Expectations: Concentrated into generalized categories, role expectations give rise to role stereotypes. Over time, societal shifts challenge and reshape these expectations, as seen in evolving perceptions of gender roles. The workplace relies on the role expectations outlined in the psychological contract between employees and employers.

d. Role Conflict: Divergent role expectations lead to conflict, impacting internal tension and behaviour. Resolving conflicts requires navigating conflicting demands, such as those imposed by different organizational hierarchies.

e. Spatial Influences on Role: Research indicates that spatial arrangement within a group is intentional and impacts roles. For instance, spatial factors in a classroom setting can influence interaction dynamics, emphasizing the interplay between spatial arrangement and roles.

ii. Norms:

Norms are shared standards of behaviour within groups and act as influential guides, minimising the need for external controls. Norms, formalised in organizational manuals or informal, shape behaviour in various settings.

a. Hawthorne Studies: The Hawthorne studies underscored the significant role of norms in shaping individual behaviour. Group norms, not monetary factors, were found to be primary influencers, showcasing the power of shared standards and group dynamics.

b. Social Desirability and Conformity: Groups create environments emphasizing socially desirable attitudes and behaviours. Organizational norms align with societal standards, placing pressure on individuals to conform to avoid being visibly different.

iii. Status:

a. Sources of Status: Status, whether formal or informal, influences behaviour within groups. Formal sources include occupation, organizational association, level, and salary, while informal sources encompass personal attributes like education, age, and skills.

b. Status Equity: Maintaining perceived equity in the status hierarchy is crucial. Inequity leads to corrective behaviours, and the trappings associated with formal positions play a role in upholding perceived fairness.

c. Clothing and Key Group Concepts: Attire serves as an identifying element, defining social roles, status, and behavioural norms. Wearing appropriate attire reinforces group membership, legitimacy, and clarity in role expectations. Ambiguity arises when individuals deviate from the expected uniform for their role.

6.4.1 Implications On Performance And Satisfaction

Impact of Roles, Norms, and Status on Group Behaviour

i. Roles:

Playing out a role as intended enhances predictability in group behaviour. When individuals adhere to their roles, it facilitates the anticipation of their actions in different situations. Understanding an individual’s role perception and others’ expectations aids in predicting and explaining role conflicts. For instance, knowing how someone perceives their role helps anticipate their reactions in situations demanding role adjustments.

ii. Norms:

Norms serve as behavioural guidelines, distinguishing right from wrong within a group. Awareness of a group’s norms helps explain member attitudes and actions. Groups with norms supporting high output tend to exhibit enhanced individual performance, while those with restrictive norms may see lower productivity. Norms influence turnover rates; groups fostering complaining and job dissatisfaction might experience higher turnover. For instance, unions may establish norms portraying members as “abused and exploited workers,” impacting satisfaction and turnover.

iii. Status:

Inequities within a group can lead to frustration and negatively impact productivity, satisfaction, and employee retention. Occupations with higher status correlate with increased job satisfaction. Factors contributing to occupational prestige, such as skill level, education requirements, autonomy, and income, are linked to satisfaction. For example, professionals in North America have the highest occupational prestige and also report the highest job satisfaction. Conversely, skilled tradesmen and blue-collar workers with lower prestige tend to exhibit lower satisfaction scores. Understanding status dynamics within groups provides insights into the factors influencing individual and collective satisfaction and productivity.

6.5 Stages of Development of Group

Group development is a dynamic process involving distinct stages, each marked by unique characteristics and challenges. These stages, often outlined by various models, offer insights into the evolution of a group and provide a framework for understanding its dynamics.

1. Forming:

• Characteristics: In the initial stage, individuals come together, and roles and expectations are not clearly defined. There is a sense of uncertainty and a tendency to rely on authority figures for guidance.
• Challenges: Members may be cautious, testing the waters and seeking acceptance. The group’s purpose and structure are often unclear.

2. Storming:

• Characteristics: Conflicts and power struggles emerge as members start asserting themselves. Differences in opinions, values, and goals become apparent, leading to tension within the group.
• Challenges: Establishing a hierarchy, resolving conflicts, and determining individual and collective goals are critical. Leadership roles may be contested.

3. Norming:

• Characteristics: The group establishes cohesion, with norms and expectations evolving. Members start recognizing each other’s strengths and weaknesses, fostering a sense of unity.
• Challenges: Key tasks include balancing individual and group needs, defining norms, and solidifying roles. Trust and collaboration have become central to group functioning.

4. Performing:

• Characteristics: With roles and norms in place, the group focuses on achieving its goals. Productivity and efficiency increase as members collaborate effectively and leverage each other’s strengths.
• Challenges: Maintaining motivation, adapting to changes, and addressing potential conflicts are ongoing concerns. Leadership plays a supportive role rather than a directive one.

5. Adjourning (or Mourning):

• Characteristics: This stage involves disbanding after completion in groups with a specific task or project. For longer-term groups, it may involve reflecting on accomplishments and preparing for future endeavours.
• Challenges: It is crucial to deal with the emotional aspects of disbandment, acknowledge contributions, and facilitate a smooth transition.

Understanding these stages equips individuals and leaders with insights into the group’s dynamics. It allows for targeted interventions, fostering a more effective and harmonious group environment. Each stage presents opportunities for growth and development, making the journey through these phases a valuable aspect of group experience.

6.6 Group Behaviour Model

George Humans developed a model that remains a valuable tool for comprehending group behaviour despite being over three decades old. This model delves into the outcomes of group efforts, emphasizing the external factors influencing group dynamics. It unfolds as a chain of influences wherein background and individual factors impact the formal system, leading to the actual behaviour and ultimately resulting in the outcomes of group behaviour.

Key Components of the Model:

i. Activities:

Physical movements observable by others, such as running, sitting, or operating machinery. Activities are the visible manifestations of individual contributions to the group effort.

ii. Interaction:

Verbal and non-verbal communication and contact between individuals. Understanding the frequency, duration, and order of interactions provides insights into their importance and the relative status of those involved.

iii. Sentiments:

Values, attitudes, and beliefs within individuals encompass positive and negative feelings. The analysis examines sentiments’ shared nature, intensity, and conviction, often inferred from observable activities and interactions.

iv. Required Behavior:

Formal group leaders define activities, interactions, and sentiments and assign specified roles. Non-compliance with required behaviour disrupts the formal system’s operations and impacts individual standing within the group.

v. Emergent Behavior:

Behaviour beyond the required can enhance personal satisfaction or, conversely, potentially hinder formal system efficiency. Emergent behaviour adds a layer of complexity, influencing the dynamic balance between individual satisfaction and organizational efficiency.

Background Factors Influencing Group Behavior:

i. Organizational Culture:

The internal atmosphere or personality of the organization shapes norms and accepted practices. Organizational culture sets parameters for group behaviour, guiding how things are done and what is considered appropriate.

ii. Job Design and Technology:

How a group achieves objectives, encompassing formal authority patterns, workflow sequencing, and tools used. Job design and technology impact interactions, activities, and sentiments by shaping work’s physical and procedural aspects.

iii. Reward System:

Formal and informal mechanisms determine which behaviours will be rewarded or discouraged. The organization’s reward system, including pay, recognition, and promotions, guides members’ behaviour by clarifying desirable and undesirable actions.

Economic Factors, External Status Hierarchy, and Legislation:

External factors, such as economic conditions and legislative frameworks, further shape the “given” context, influencing observed group behaviour.

George Humans’ model thus provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the multifaceted nature of group behaviour, acknowledging the intricate interplay between individual, group, and external factors.

6.7 Characteristics of Group Decision-Making

Groups within organizations often leverage decision-making committees to address problems and formulate decisions. While these committees enhance the acceptance and implementation of decisions, they also pose challenges associated with group dynamics. Although significant, group decisions have inherent costs. Two notable phenomena, groupthink and the risky shift, influence a group’s ability to evaluate alternatives and reach effective decisions.

i. Groupthink:

Groupthink occurs when group pressures for conformity discourage critical evaluation of unconventional or minority views, hindering the group’s performance.

• Impact: Due to the pressure for consensus, individuals may hesitate to express dissenting opinions, leading to a deterioration in mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgements.
• Example: In a meeting, individuals might avoid expressing dissenting views to maintain group harmony, potentially compromising the quality of decision-making.

ii. Risky Shift Phenomenon:

The risky shift phenomenon refers to groups’ tendency to make decisions that are riskier than those individual members might make on their own.

• Causes: Several hypotheses attempt to explain the risky shift, including:
  • Familiarization Hypothesis: Group discussion increases familiarity, leading to bolder decision-making.
  • Leadership Hypothesis: Risk-taking individuals emerge as leaders, influencing group decisions.
  • Risk as Value Hypothesis: Group discussion motivates individuals to align with the perceived cultural value of risk-taking.
  • Diffusion of Responsibility Hypothesis: Group decisions diffuse individual accountability for the final choice.
• Implications: The risky shift phenomenon challenges efforts to democratize organizational decision-making, requiring careful consideration.

Exploring Group Decision-Making Challenges:

• Groupthink:
  • Individuals may suppress their true feelings and beliefs to conform, hindering diverse perspectives.
  • Group harmony might be prioritized over critical evaluation, impacting the effectiveness of decisions.

• Risky Shift Phenomenon:
  • Group decisions may exhibit a higher degree of risk compared to individual choices.
  • Factors like familiarity, leadership dynamics, cultural values, and diffusion of responsibility contribute to the phenomenon.

While group decision-making through committees enhances acceptance and implementation, navigating the pitfalls associated with groupthink and the risky shift is crucial. Organizations aiming for democratic decision-making must be aware of these phenomena and their implications, ensuring a balanced approach that fosters consensus and critical evaluation.

6.8 Group Decision-Making Techniques