11 – Conflict Management

Individual conflict arises when one encounters hindrances or competing roles and goals that impede decision-making. Several factors contribute to the emergence of conflict within an individual:

1. Unacceptability

An individual is aware of various alternatives and their respective probabilities. However, if the preferred alternative is unsatisfactory, the individual may struggle to accept it. Unacceptability is subjective, varying from one person to another. Conflict can be mitigated by motivating the individual to search for new alternatives, potentially revising the basis of unacceptability.

2. Incomparability

Incomparability arises when an individual, despite understanding the probability distribution of alternatives, finds the outcomes incomparable. The inability to make proper comparisons can be attributed to a lack of clarity, inadequate comparison techniques, irrational attitudes, and a lack of competence. Incomparability induces tension and conflict, requiring clarity, rationality, and decisiveness to alleviate them.

3. Uncertainty

Uncertainty pertains to unpredictability in alternative environments within and outside the organization. Frustration stemming from uncertainty can lead to conflict. Experience and reduced complexity in decision-making can alleviate uncertainty, fostering a more certain decision-making environment.

11.1.1 Causes of Individual Conflict:

i. Frustration

Blocked motivated drives that impede goal achievement result in frustration, the highest level of dissatisfaction. Frustration triggers defence mechanisms like aggression, withdrawal, fixation, and compromise.

ii. Goal Conflict

It occurs when an individual struggles to decide between goals due to conflicting features or competing goals. Three types of goal conflicts include:

a. Approach: choosing between two equally positive but exclusive goals.

b. Approach-Avoidance: Dealing with a single goal containing positive and negative aspects.

c. Avoidance: motivated to avoid multiple goals with negative elements.

iii. Role Conflict

Arises when an individual plays various roles with differing expectations. Conflicts occur when personal expectations clash with those of others while fulfilling a role. Resolving role conflict requires awareness, acceptance of conflicting pressures, stress tolerance, and adherence to standardized expectations.

Navigating these conflicts demands that individuals develop clarity, rationality, and coping mechanisms, which contribute to more effective decision-making and reduce internal tensions.

11.2 Organization Conflict

It can be categorized into two sections for discussion.

1. Interpersonal Conflict

Conflicts often emerge between individuals and groups operating at various levels within an organization composed of individuals. Joseph Luft and Harry Inghan conceptualized this interpersonal conflict through the “Johari Window,” comprising four cells:

1. Open Self: People are aware of themselves and others, fostering clarity in interpersonal interactions and reducing uncertainty, incomparability, and unacceptability issues.

2. Hidden Self: The person is aware of themselves but lacks knowledge about the other, increasing the potential for conflict as the other party’s feelings and reactions remain concealed.

3. Blind Self: The person knows about the other but lacks self-awareness. Actions or expressions may inadvertently irritate, leading to interpersonal conflict.

4. Undiscovered Self: The person lacks awareness of themselves and others, creating a highly vulnerable situation with heightened chances of interpersonal conflict.

Resolution of Interpersonal Conflict:

Several strategies, identified by Alan C. Filley, Robert J. House, and Steven Kerr, include:

• Lose-lose: This involves compromise, where both parties relinquish their positions and settle on a mutually acceptable solution. External arbitrators or adherence to predefined rules may also resolve the conflict.
• Win-loss creates a highly competitive situation where both parties strive for victory, often sidelining rationality for emotional dominance. This is common in superior-subordinate relationships and union-management dynamics.
• Win-Win: An ideal strategy promoting rational thinking and behavioural maturity. It aims to meet the needs of both parties, resulting in satisfaction for all involved. They are considered an ideal approach for resolving interpersonal conflicts.

2. Inter-Group Conflict

Examining inter-group conflict within the organizational context reveals several underlying causes:

1. Absence of Joint Decision-Making: Organizations composed of diverse groups face conflicts due to each group striving for a significant share of limited resources. Pursuing individual time schedules for task performance can lead to organizational ineffectiveness. To resolve such conflicts, joint decision-making becomes imperative. Conflicting parties must discuss their specific needs within the broader organizational perspective.

2. Difference in Goals: Disparities in goals within an organization stem from factors such as group heterogeneity, unclear reward structures, and variations in the comparability of these structures.

3. Differences in Perception: Inter-group conflicts arise from variations in members’ information sources, processing techniques, time horizons, and conflicting goals.

Resolving Inter-Group Conflict:

1. Intervention and Non-Intervention Approaches:

a. Non-Intervention: Administrators and managers may opt for non-intervention due to uncertainty about potential consequences or a desire to avoid conflict within the organization. Initially, they ignore group conflicts, but they may hope for resolution through self-confrontation among conflicting parties. If this approach proves ineffective, other methods will come into play.

b. Intervention: In cases where non-intervention falls short, administrators may intervene using different strategies falling under four major categories:

2. Problem Solving: Success hinges on agreeing on a common goal. Once agreed upon, alternatives can be devised in alignment with the shared goal. If a common goal is elusive, flexible group sub-goals may be adopted, subject to change, to achieve broader organizational objectives.

3. Persuasion: Traditional persuasion gives way to compromise, threats, bluffs, deception, and side payments. In cases of persuasion failure, bargaining becomes a viable option.

4. Bargaining is a give-and-take process in which both parties agree to concessions in exchange for gains. Threats may sometimes be used to reach a mutually beneficial agreement.

5. Politics: When parties maintain rigid stances on their goals and external intervention fails to alter the win-lose dynamic, a lose-lose scenario or political conflict may ensue. In labour-management disputes, strikes or lockouts can lead to losses for both management and labour.

2. Intervention Strategies:

a. Dealing with Symptoms of Conflict: Two methods include smoothing over conflicts by offering rewards or incentives and repressing conflict through coercive power, giving conflicting parties excessive work to limit clashes.

b. Settling the Conflict: Strategies include negotiations between conflicting parties and seeking to eliminate the sources of conflict.

c. Preventing Conflict Sources: This involves establishing clear organizational goals to redirect group energy towards achievement and encourage cooperation. Prevention can also be facilitated through enhanced communication, interactions between groups, rotation of group members to experience and address problems, and fostering healthy competition among groups.

11.3 Types Of Organizational Conflict

Litterer has proposed four distinct causes of Organizational Conflict, delineating factors contributing to discord within an organization:

1. Incompatible Means or Resource Allocations:

Conflict arises when individuals, groups, or departments have conflicting means or allocations of resources, leading to an imbalance in their interactions.

2. Incompatible Goal Situations:

Conflicting goals among individuals or groups within an organization contribute to organizational conflict. Misalignment of objectives can create tension and discord.

3. Problem of Status Incongruities:

Disparities in status among organizational members can be a source of conflict. Incongruities in perceived status levels may lead to interpersonal tensions.

4. Difference in Perception:

Variances in how individuals perceive situations, issues, or decisions can contribute to organizational conflict. Divergent perspectives may lead to misunderstandings and disputes.

Structurally, Organizational Conflict (OC) can be categorized into four main types:

1. Hierarchical Conflict:

Conflict emerges among different organizational levels. For instance, disputes may arise between top management and middle management levels.

2. Functional Conflict:

Conflict occurs between various functional departments within the organization. An example is the conflict between the production and marketing departments.

3. Line-Staff Conflict:

Conflict can arise between line and staff members. Staff members’ lack of authority over those in line positions can be a source of conflict.

4. Formal-Informal Conflict:

Conflict exists between the formal and informal structures within the organization. This conflict involves tensions between established formal procedures and informal organizational dynamics.

Litterer has proposed three fundamental strategies to mitigate organizational conflict:

1. Erection of Buffers:

Implementing buffers between conflicting parties can minimize direct interactions and alleviate tensions. White’s study of the restaurant industry delves into this approach.

2. Organizational Development Techniques:

Utilizing organizational development techniques can empower conflicting parties with better self-awareness and understanding of others, fostering improved communication and resolution.

3. Redesigning Organizational Structure:

Restructuring the organizational framework can be employed as a strategy to diminish conflict. Adjusting the organizational structure aims to address the root causes of discord and promote a more harmonious work environment.

11.4 Causes of Conflict

The factors contributing to conflict within an organization can be categorized into the following aspects:

i. Interdependence among Departments and Groups:

The modern systems approach emphasizes interdependence, which frequently gives rise to conflicts among departments and groups. Conflicts often stem from mutual interdependence, mainly when resources are limited within the organization. Limited resources prompt each department or group to assert its needs as indispensable. Managing a more significant share through manipulation can lead to dissatisfaction in deprived departments. Distributing limited resources equally or equitably is challenging, causing conflicts until the resource situation improves. Additionally, conflicts arise from interdependence in the timing of activities, where the performance of one department depends on another completing tasks within a set schedule.

ii. Difference in Goals:

Conflict may emerge due to differences in goals among various sub-units or departments. This divergence is linked to four organizational characteristics: mutual dependence on limited resources, competitive reward systems, variations in individual goals, and distinctions in organizational operating goals. Limited resources and high wage demands from the operating force can lead to conflicts. Competitive reward systems can generate conflicts among different units wildly if one group succeeds in obtaining favourable rewards. Differences in individual goals, influenced by diverse lifestyles and socio-political backgrounds, contribute to conflicts. Inter-group conflicts may arise when organizational operating goals lack objectivity and clarity.

iii. Differences in Perceptions:

Conflicts may arise due to variations in perceptions resulting from different senses interpreting information based on past experiences. Perception, being a psychological element, depends on the information and communication system and the personality development of individuals. Differing perceptions arise from diverse backgrounds, and individuals may conflict over contrasting attitudes towards work. The source of information and time horizon further contribute to differences in perceptions. Inter-group conflicts arise from interdependence, goal differences, and variations in perceptions among groups.

Other Sources of Conflict

Additional sources of conflict encompass:

i. One-Way Task Dependence:

Unilateral task dependence increases conflict potential between individuals, groups, and organisational units. Imbalanced power, where one group holds dominance, diminishes cooperation incentives, leading to conflicts, particularly when power dynamics shift.

ii. High Horizontal Differentiation:

Differing time perspectives among groups result in conflicts between units and departments. High horizontal differentiation, leading to distinct goals, time orientations, and management philosophies, intensifies conflicts.

iii. Low Formalization:

Reduced formalization, characterized by low rules and regulations, heightens the likelihood of conflicts over roles, functions, and jurisdiction as roles become less defined.

iv. Differences in Evaluation Criteria and Reward Systems:

Varied criteria for evaluation within a business organization can lead to conflicts. Departments may be rewarded differently based on divergent evaluation standards, such as rewarding production for efficiency and sales for speed.

v. Status Incongruence:

Conflicts arise when there is incongruence between an individual’s status and the assigned role within the organization. Pay, education, competence, and hierarchy contribute to status incongruence conflicts.

vi. Role Dissatisfaction:

Conflicts may occur when individuals are assigned roles that do not align with their competence and preferences. This can result in dissatisfaction and status incongruence and contribute to organisational conflicts.

11.5 Integration